by Ella Davis, PPS '25
We live in a world where—in one place—a simple act of parenting, like expectations regarding children’s obligations to their families, could spark outrage and misunderstanding in another. The Parenting Across Cultures (PAC) study, launched in 2008, delves into this complexity, exploring how cultural contexts shape parenting and impact children's psychological and behavioral development across 13 diverse cultures in nine countries.
The motivation for this project stemmed from a lack of previous research on parenting and child development in low- and middle-income countries that have been historically underrepresented in scientific literature, as well as highly publicized media accounts of immigrant parenting incidents considered unacceptable in their country of destination but desirable in their country of origin. There were stories regarding American parents spanking their children in Sweden, where corporal punishment was outlawed. There were also examples of immigrant parents in the United States using healing techniques, such as “cupping,” that were misconstrued as violence. These misconceptions were widespread, so a team of investigators from universities in nine countries worldwide decided to dig into the implications of parenting in different cultural contexts for children as they grow.
Eventually, their study’s goal emerged as one large question:
"How are different forms of parenting related to children's development and adjustment, depending on the broader cultural contexts in which they're implemented?"
Jennifer Lansford, director of the Center of Child and Family Policy and principal investigator of PAC
They began following 1,417 children around the age of 8, annually, choosing the most culturally diverse sample ever assembled, spanning 13 cultures—Jinan and Shanghai, China; Colombia; Naples and Rome, Italy; Jordan; Kenya; Philippines; Sweden; Thailand; and Black, white, and Latino Americans in the United States. Still an ongoing study, researchers gather data on the now-24-year-olds, shifting focus towards young adults’ relationships with parents and major milestones of early adulthood, as they incorporate cultural norms.
The researchers have assessed families through interviews with mothers, fathers, and children about parent-child dynamics, the child’s adjustment, attitudes and beliefs, cultural values, and self-regulation. They also assess adolescents’ reward-seeking, social information processing, and risk-taking via a computerized battery administered at ages 10, 13, 16, and 19.
A key hypothesis addressed in this extensive research is that associations between parents’ behavior and children’s adjustment are affected by whether parents are parenting in a way that is consistent with others in their cultural group.
One example of how this hypothesis has been supported relates to familial obligations. In the United States, white, middle-income children and adolescents do not have high expectations placed on them regarding their obligations to the family. By contrast, in other groups, such as in the Philippines, parents hold higher expectations surrounding their children’s obligations to family, including showing respect and providing care for other family members. Through the PAC study, a child’s adjustment has been found to be worse if their peers have lower familial obligations, but they maintain higher ones. Children would ask,
“Why are my parents doing this, when no one else’s are?”
Another example of PAC’s findings regarding this hypothesis is the global implications of corporal punishment. In 2008, at the start of the study, Kenya, a country included in the analysis, practiced frequent and harsh use of corporal punishment. However, over the past 16 years, researchers found direct correlations between corporal punishment and aggression in children and adolescents. In countries where corporal punishment was culturally viewed as hostile, there was an even stronger correlation between corporal punishment and more child anxiety and aggression. Throughout the course of the PAC project, Kenya outlawed corporal punishment, and PAC findings were cited in the decision that led to Colombia’s outlawing of corporal punishment in 2021.
Although the United States hasn’t moved in the direction that now 66 countries have in outlawing corporal punishment, the Parenting Across Cultures study has played an integral part in the world’s mindset shift surrounding child well-being. Above all else, PAC has expanded research into never-before-seen territories, focusing on understanding the psychological implications of parenting behaviors in diverse cultural contexts around the world. As Lansford states,
"This study adds a perspective from lower- and middle-income countries that have been largely neglected in research literature for a very long time."
As the Parenting Across Cultures study continues, it provides crucial insights into how diverse parenting practices impact child development, in regions that deserve research attention. By examining the effects of these practices, PAC has truly influenced global policies. This essential project highlights the need to respect and understand cultural differences in parenting to protect child well-being worldwide.
Ella Davis is an incoming senior majoring in Public Policy (B.A.) with a Certificate in Documentary Studies. She is interning this summer as a CCFP Research Assistant.