This brief was developed using Microsoft Copilot and edited by Charlotte Sutcliffe, Duke undergraduate research assistant; for full text and references see
Holt, Stephen B., Katie Vinopal, Heasun Choi, and Lucy C. Sorensen. (2022). Strictly Speaking: Examining Teacher Use of Punishments and Student Outcomes. (EdWorkingPaper: 22-563). Retrieved from Annenberg Institute at Brown University: https://doi.org/10.26300/meqn-w550
Background:
This study investigates how elementary school teachers’ use of disciplinary referrals, specifically for subjectively defined infractions, affects student outcomes, including attendance, academic achievement, and long-term educational attainment. Using administrative data from North Carolina public schools (grades 3–5, 2008–2013), the authors analyze over 330,000 students and 15,000 teachers to assess the impact of teacher punitiveness (tendency to punish) and racial bias in disciplinary practices.
Findings:
Key findings reveal that teachers who are more likely to resort to punishment, measured by their tendency to issue more referrals for subjective behaviors like “disrespect” or “disruption,” negatively affect student outcomes. A one standard deviation increase in teacher punitiveness leads to a 2.6% rise in student absences and a 2.4% decline in math achievement. These effects continue even after controlling for prior student behavior, academic ability, and teachers’ effectiveness in punishing. Importantly, the negative impact extends beyond the students who receive referrals, affecting the entire classroom.
The study also emphasizes racial disparities. Teachers who exhibit racial bias - defined as issuing more subjective referrals to Black students than to White students with similar prior behavior - cause increased absences and reduced academic performance among Black students. Specifically, black students facing a racially biased teacher are 9.5% more likely to be absent and show lower gains in both math and reading. These disparities persist into middle school and are associated with lower high school graduation rates and reduced intentions to attend college.
The analysis further shows that punitive and biased disciplinary practices have long-term consequences. Students exposed to more punitive or racially biased teachers in elementary school are more likely to receive disciplinary referrals in middle school, have lower test scores, and are less likely to take college entrance exams or express college aspirations.
Takeaways:
Punitive disciplinary approaches do not improve classroom management or student learning. Instead, they undermine student engagement and exacerbate racial inequities. The authors recommend reducing reliance on subjective referrals, improving teacher training in classroom management and implicit bias, and diversifying the teacher workforce to promote more equitable educational outcomes.